英语专业必备！胡壮麟语言学笔记汇总(3)

properties. 5.3 sense relations:

5.3.1 synonymy: the sameness or close similarity of meaning 1)absolute synonyms: 维生素-维他命 激素-荷尔蒙 2)relative synonyms:

3)dialectal synonyms: used in different region 4)Stylistic synonyms: differing in style

5)Emotive synonyms:differ in the emotion and evaluating meaning. 6) collocational synonyms: accuse of charge with 7)semantically different synonyms: amaze astound 5.3.2 antonymy: relation of semantic opposition Gradable antonyms: old and young middle-aged

Complementary antonyms: 互补反义关系alive and dead male and female Converse antonyms: 相反反义关系 father and son teacher and student 5.3.3 hyponymy: 上下义关系: the sense relation between a more general More inclusive word Superordinate:广义词 Hyponyms: more specific words. 补充：homonymy: 同音异义词

Same in sound: homophones leak/leek piece-peace Same in spelling:homographs lead/lead tear/tear Same in sound/spelling: complete homonyms fast scale Polysemy: 一词多义 table

5.4 componential analysis: analyze word meaning

Advantages: it better accounts for sense relations between words Eg man(human, adult , male)

It better accounts for sense relations between sentences X is synonymous with y x is inconsistent with y X entails y x presuppose y

X is a contradiction x is semantically anomalous Kill=cause die=become

5.5 sentence meaning: includes word meaning and sentence structure The dog bit the man john, said mary, was a snob The man bit the dog mary, said john, was a snob 5.5.1 an integrated theory 整体理论

Compositionality: 复合性原则：the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined is usually known as the principle of compositionality 5.5.2 logical semantics: 逻辑性原则

1)Propositional logic:命题逻辑 the study of the truth conditions for proposition 假如P是正确的，则P的反命题是错的

5.5.3 predicate logic: 谓词逻辑， studies the internal structure of simple propositions John is a man. John is argument while man is the predicate

Chapter 6 Language and cognition

6.1 cognition: in psychology it is used to refer to the mental processes of an individual; is the mental process or faculty of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.

6.2 psycholinguistics: the study of psychological aspects of language; it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language

6.2.1 language acquisition: possessing a language is the quintessentially human trait. 1) holophrastic stage: 独词句阶段： 独词句阶段是语言习得的第一阶段 2) two-word stage: 双子句阶段 3) stage of three-word utterances 4)fluent grammatical conversation stage 6.2.2 language comprehension 1) word recognition: 2)comprehension of sentences 3)comprehension of context 6.2.3 language production

1) access to words: how speakers generate single words? 2) generation of sentences 3)written language production

6.3 cognitive linguistics: a newly established approach to the study of language 6.3.1 construal解释说明 and construal operations

Construal: the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation etc

Construal operations: conceptualizing process used in language process by human beings. 1) attention/salience显著

2) judgment/comparison: have to do with judging something by comparing it to something else. There’s a cat(figure) on the mat(ground) 3) perspective/situatedness置身所在，情境性 look at that look at this

6.3.2 categorization:分门别类 the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences

主客观相互作用对事物进行分类的过程。 Category: 指事物在认知中的归类

1)basic level: are mostly culturally salient and are required to fulfill our cognitive needs the best. This is the level where we preceive the most differences between “objects ” in the world. The most inclusive level 2)superordinate level: the most general ones. The members of a superordinate category do not have enough features in common to conjure up a common gesalt at this level; less good categories than basic level categories, have fewer defining features than basic level categories. 3) subordinate level: 从属级别 they are typically composite forms.

6.3.3 image schemas图解: a recurring , dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience.

1) a center-periphery schema: it involves a physical or metaphorical core and edge, and degree of distance from the core. Eg: an individual’s social sphere, with family and friends at the core and others at the outside. 2)a containment schema: involves a physical or metaphorical boundary, enclosed area or volume. 3)a cycle schema: repetitious events and event series 4)a force schema: physical or metaphorical causal interaction

5)link schema: two or more entities, eg: a child holding her mother’s hand.

6)a part-whole schema: eg: the body and its parts ,the family and the case structure of india 7)a path scheme:

8) a scale scheme: eg: properties in the number system 9)a verticality schema: 6.3.4 metaphor: 暗喻

6.3.5 metonymy: 转喻，换喻，是在提及事物时不用其本身的名字称呼而是用与它密切相连的概念来替代它的一种 英语修辞格。 它着重的是事物本身的特点或它与其他事物之间的特殊关系。 6.3.6 blending theory 补充： Simile：明喻

Synecdoche: 提喻 跟转喻比较相似 局部代替整体或整体代替局部，种类代替个体或以个体替代种类，以材料代替所制成的物品的修辞格。

Chapter 7 Language, culture, and society 7.1 language and culture

Language is an indispensable carrier of culture, culture finds a better representation through language use. Culture, in a broad sense, means integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behavior that is both a result of and integral to the human capacity for learning and transmitting knowledge to succeeding generations; consists of language, ideas, belief, customs, taboos, codes, institutions, tools, techniques ,and works of art,symbols, etc; reflects a total way of life of a people in a community. 7.1.1 how does language relate to culture?

1)language use and its meaning are heavily tinted(relate to) with its culture Eg: 美国人把狗看做一种毛的驯服的家庭宠物，但有些国家看做桌上美食

2) language expresses cultural realty: 语言反应一个人的文化社会背景，因为语言折射出一个人的习惯，思维习惯。

3) language is related to what the culture is and what is was and is also related to the culture of imagination, which governs people’s decisions as well as actions

4) to sum up, language as an integral part of human being permeates his thinking and way of viewing the world, which boh express and embodies cultural reality. On the other, language as a system of spoken or written symbols used by people in a shared culture to communicate with each other, reflects ad affects a culture’s way of thinking and helps perpetuate and change the culture and its influence. 7.1.2 more about Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis 思维语言的一致性

The structure of the language people habitually use influences the way they think and behave. To put it simply, different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, and so they think and speak differently—linguistic realty.; they believe that language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize their experiences, this interdependence of language and thought is now known as SWH Mainly two different interpretations:

A strong version: language patterns determine people’s thinking and behavior The weak one: language patterns influences people’s thinking and behavior

Eg: english-speaking culture tend to teach its people what is practical, useful and important, that is to say, the important things take on specific names while the less important things have general names. The eskimos have countless words for snow for snow is extremely important and so crucial to life. In english-speaking culture, snow is far less important and the simple word snow usually suffices the need. SWH has shed two important insights:

There is nowadays recognition that language , as code, reflects cultural preoccupations and constraints the way people think;

More than in whorf’s days, however, we recognize how important context is in complementing the meanings encoded in the language. 7.2 language and society

7.2.1 how does language relate to society

Language is used to communicate meaning, while it is also used to establish and maintain social relations建立维系社会关系

The king of language each of them chooses to use is in part determined by his social background. And language, in return, reveals information about its speaker.反映说话人的社会背景。 7.3 cross-cultural communication

7.3.1 what should we know about cross-cultural communication

Successful communication occurs when hearer can see, feel, and understand issues from the speaker’s point of view; when the speaker and hearer know each other’s intension; when the two parties adopt a dynamic dialogue pattern. 7.3.2 case study

when in Rome do as the romans do put yourself in other’s shoes

one culture’s meat is another culture’s poison

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