LINGUISTICS(9)

between the underlying潜在的subject and its verb, or a verb and its object.

Surface structure表面结构: the final stage in the syntactic句法的derivation来历of a construction, which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive.

4.2 The development of TG grammar: (6 periods)

(1) Classical theory: ―Syntactic Structure语法结构‖ (1957)

(2) Standard theory: ―Aspects of the Theory of Syntax‖语法方面的理论(1965)

(3) Extended standard theory: “Deep Structure, Surface Structure and Semantic Interpretation‖语义解释

(4) Revised extended standard theory标准理论(1977-1978) : ―Essays on Form and Interpretation‖ (5) Government and Binding theory (1978 -): “Lectures on Government and Binding‖ (6) Minimalist program (1990 - ):最简方案

Phrase structure component has phrase structure rules as follows, S → NP + VP VP → V+ NP NP → Det + N Det → the, a , etc N → man, ball, etc

V → hit, took, etc

Question: The man hit a ball.

? The transformational component转换组件, has transformational rules, which change the

deep structures generated产生by the phrase structure component into surface structures. ? The active and the passive, the declarative宣言的and the interrogative疑问词, and the

positive and the negative are each derived from the same deep structure.

DS : NP1 + Aux + V + NP2 John will finish the paper.

SS: NP2 + Aux + be + en + V + by + NP1 The paper will be en finish by John.

The morpho-phonemic词素音位的 component is responsible for the correct spelling and pronunciation of the words in the surface structure.

? In the example above, will, be, en, finish are morphemes词素. The first two will and be

are free morphemes, and will be words by themselves. The last two are constituent morphemes of the same word, yet not in the right order.

? There is a transformational转换的rule ?affix hopping‘ 词缀越位，enabling en and finish

to exchange their relative positions to produce finish and en.

? Then morpho-phonemic rule will change en to be spelt as ed and pronounced as / t /. Question: Can we solve the problem of ?the love of God‘ by deep structure? Yes, they share the same surface structure, but different deep structures. 1. God loves somebody. 2. Somebody loves God.

Question: Flying planes can be dangerous.

4.4 Standard theory

? Base component and transformational component转换部分form the syntactic

components.

? A language is now seen as consisting of three major parts: syntax语法, semantics语义学

and phonology音系学.

? A base component itself is divided into two sub-components: categories and lexicon词典. ? The sub-component---categories, contains rewriting rules more or less the same as the

phrase structure rules in the first model.

? One difference is that at the end of derivation there are no longer rules inserting words

directly as ―N → man, ball, etc.‖, but rules with feature specifications规格like:

N → [ + N, + Common, - Count, + Abstract] V → [ + V, + --- NP, + ---that ^ S‘] E.g.

Sincerity [+ N, + Common, - Count, + Abstract] Eat [+V, +----NP, +----#]

? Words of the same feature specifications are in a paradigmatic词形变化的relation with

each other, they can occur in the same syntactic句法的context.

E.g. the boy is smiling/crying.

? The advantage of the sub-categorization (category and lexicon) can ensure make correct

sentences.

E.g.: Sincerity may frighten the boy, * The boy may frighten sincerity.

? Transformational转换的rules convert deep structure into various surface structure. In the

standard theory, transformational rules include deletion缺失rules, addition rules ,copying rules and reordering rules.

? Deep structure is the input of the semantic语义的component, which gives the semantic

interpretation解释of the sentence.

? Surface structure is the input of the phonological音韵学的component, which gives the

phonetic interpretation of a sentence.

4.6 Revised standard theory

4.8 Minimalist program

5. Functional approach (p.87)

Systemic functional grammar (from Firth — Halliday)

Systemic part means the items in a system are in a choice relation with each other. So Halliday‘s theory pays more attention to the paradigmatic词形变化的relations, different from Chomsky who focuses more on syntagmatic组合关系的relations. Functional part (from Malinowski马利诺夫斯基): Halliday tries to relate functions of language with structures. Halliday distinguishes three meta-functions三个元功能of language: (1) Ideational function; (2) Textual本文的function; (3) Interpersonal人际的function.

5.1 Ideational function (clause as a representation of experience)

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