3.2.1 Minimal pairs 最小对立项 (p.38) :
When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are minimal pairs. e.g. pill & bill, pin & bin, heard & head & hide
Free variants自由变体: different sounds of the same phoneme caused by dialect, habit or individual preference, etc. e.g: either ( [ˋi: e ?] [ˋai: e ?] ) economics ( [i:k ?ˋn ?miks] [ek ?ˋn ?miks] )
Free variation自由变体现象(p.39) : the phenomenon of free variants变体.
3.2.2 Complementary distribution 互补分布
The relation between two speech sounds that never occur in the same environment. 两个语音之间
的关系从未发生在相同的环境。
e.g: [ph] and [p=], which are the allophones 语位变体of /p/, as in words peak and speak, are in complementary distribution互补分布. Clear [l] in lead and dark [\\] in deal, which are allophones语位变体of the phoneme / l /, are in complementary distribution.
3.2.3 Phonetic similarity 语音相似性
A condition for two or more segments in complementary distribution to be assigned to the same phoneme. 一个条件两个或两个以上的片段互补分布分配相同的音素。 e.g:[ph] & [p=]: [l] & [\\]: +bilabial +bilabial双唇音 +lateral +lateral边音 +voiceless +voiceless +voiced +voiced
+plosive +plosive破裂音 +alveolar +velarized使软腭化 +aspirated -aspirated送气音的
3.2.4 Distinctive features 区别性特征(p.39)
The features that a phoneme音素possesses, making it different from other phonemes. They are language-specific (What distinguishes meaning in one language does not necessarily do so in
another language).
A phoneme has a bundle of features:
e.g: /m/ /?/ /p/
+consonantal -consonantal +consonantal辅音的 +bilabial -rounded +bilabial双唇音 +voiced +voiced -voiced +nasal +front -nasal鼻音 -continuant +continuant -continuant连续音 . +low . Discussion:
A phoneme has a bundle of features:
[h] [?] (onset position) (coda position) +glottal +velar +oral +nasal +fricative +stop +voiceless +voiced
3.3 Phonological音韵学的rules (p.35)
3.3.1 Assimilation rule同化作用(p.35):
a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound. regressive assimilation逆同化: the following sound influences the preceding在前的sound progressive assimilation顺同化: the preceding sound influences the following sound
? 1. Nasalization鼻音化
[-nasal] [+nasal]/___[+nasal] E.g: can, tan
? 2. Dentalization齿音化 E.g: tenth, ninth
? 3. Velarization软腭化
E.g: sink, mink 水貂，貂皮衣
? 4. Devoicing浊音清化 E.g: five past /faif pa:st/
3.3.2 Liaison 连读 (p.35):
Liaison: The phenomenon of the linking连接of words in speech, in particular when the second word begins with a vowel.特别是当第二个单词以元音开始。
? Join the final consonant辅音of one word with the initial vowel of the following word:
post office
? Link the final vowels [?:] and [?] to a following vowel by adding the [r] sound: her own, the idea of
? Make smooth transitions when words are separated by more than two consonants: next
topic
? Make smooth transitions when the preceding在前的word ends with a vowel and the
following word begins also with a vowel sound by adding a slight [j] (after [i:] or [i]) or [w] (after [u:] or [u]) : my arm, two others
? Change the pronunciation of some final and initial consonants: Did you …?
3.3.3 Elision 省音(p.35):
Elision: the loss of a sound or sounds in speech. This loss may be a consonant or vowel. Elision is typical of rapid, casual speech. e.g: suppose [sp?uz] factory [f?ktri] mostly [m?usli]
3.3.4 Rule ordering规则编次
Underlying在下面的representation:
[si:tz] [bedz] [keisz] 1. Epenthesis: 插音 [si:tz] [bedz] [keisiz] 2. Devoicing: 浊音清化 [si:ts] [bedz] [keisiz]
Surface representation:
[si:ts] [bedz] [keisiz]
3.4 Suprasegmental phonology (p.40) 超音段音系学:
Suprasegmental phonology
those aspects of speech which involve more than single sound segments, including syllable音节, stress重读, tone语气and intonation声调.
3.4.1 The syllable音节 (p.40)
The sonority theory 响度说 1. voiceless stops: [p] [t] [k]
2. voiceless fricatives膜擦声: [f] [s] [h] [θ] [∫] 3. voiced stops: [b] [d] [g] 4. voiced fricatives: [v] [z] [e] [З]
5. nasals鼻腔音and laterals边音: [m] [n] [?] [l]
6. trills颤音, flaps马唇肿胀and approximants无擦通音: [?] [r] [w] [j] 7. high vowels高母音 : [i:] [i] [u:] [u] 8. mid vowels: [e] [?] 9. low vowels: [?] [?:] [?] [a]
? Syllable as phonological structural unit:音节作为语音结构单元p41
Monosyllable单音节词—one syllable. Eg: sit, pig, name, stop, vest
Polysyllable多音节词—more than one syllable. Eg: apple, button, mammal, university, student A syllable音节must have a nucleus (核心) or peak (峰) which is often a vowel, sometimes a
consonant plays the part of a nucleus.
Note: table consists of包含a syllable [tei] and a syllable [bl], in the first syllable, the nucleus is [ei], while in the second one it is the consonant辅音[l] to function as the nucleus (apple, bottle, mammal, etc). Similarly, [n] can also have such function in English. Eg: button (cotton, mutton, etc).
? A syllable must have a Nucleus.
? A syllable that has no coda结尾部分is an OPEN SYLLABLE开音节. ? A syllable that has a coda is a CLOSED SYLLABLE.
? ENGLISH syllable is (((C) C)C) V ((((C)C)C)C), sixths→CVCCCC [siksGs], spring →
CCCVC [spri ?], eye →V [ai] ? Chinese syllable is (C)V(C ).
方→CVC (fang)，反→CV (fa), 爱→V (ai) Syllabification:n. 音节划分法
1. The maximum open syllable:最大的开音节 2. The minimal coda结尾部分: 3. The maximum onset开始:
3.4.2 Stress (p.43) 重读
3.4.2.1 Word stress
? Stress—The degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription音译, a raised
vertical垂直线line [?] is used just before the syllable it relates to.
? Stressed & unstressed syllable—The former is more prominent突出的than the later due
to an increase in loudness, length or pitch. So stress is a relative notion. The location of stress in English distinguishes区分meaning.
3.4.2.2 Sentence stress
3.4.3 Pitch and tone音高和音调
Pitch --- Pitch is determined by the frequency of vibration振动of the vocal cords声带. The higher the frequency is, the higher the pitch is. Tones --- pitch variations变更caused by the
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