LINGUISTICS(8)

词and the way they are combined.

1.4

Sequences of words that observe the rules of syntax are said to be well-formed or grammatical. Sequences of words that violate违反the syntactic句法的rules are said to be therefore ill-formed or ungrammatical.

2. Word classes (parts of speech)

Whether a word can occupy a certain position in a sentence depends on its grammatical category rather than its meaning.

? Nouns: ? Adjectives: ? Verbs:x ? Adverbs: ? Prepositions介词: ? Pronouns代词: ? Conjunctions连词:

E.g: The hunter fears the cries of the blackbirds.

S Art. N V Art. N Prep. Art. N PS rules (rewrite rules): the rules which govern the structure of phrases.

3. Structural approach (p.74)

? Objective: to study the distribution分布of linguistic form in a language. ? Method: the use of ―test-frames‖. e.g.:

(1) The _____ makes a lot of noise. (2) I hear _____ yesterday.

Obviously, the grammatical category needed here is “noun” or “noun phrases”.

3.1 Syntagmatic组合关系的and paradigmatic词形变化的ralations

Syntagmatic (horizontal/chain) relation is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present. E.g.: The boy kicked the ball.

*Boy the ball kicked the. (syntactic句法的) *The ball kicked the boy. (semantic语义的)

There are syntactic and semantic conditions the words in a syntagmatic组合关系的relation must meet.

Paradigmatic relation (associative联合的/ vertical/ choice relation):

A relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent. E.g. ____ is smiling. The boy The woman The teacher …

The constraint in a paradigmatic is syntactic only.

3.2 IC analysis

Immediate Constituents Analysis直接成分分析: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents—word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents reached. Substitutability可替代性: The criterion标准to judge whether or not a sequence is a constituent. E.g.: The man bought a car.

“The man, a car” are closer than the other elements in the sentence.

Representation of IC analysis

3.3 Advantages of IC analysis

(1) It may reveal the important structural property of the sentence that is not only made up of elements arranged in a linear order线性有序类, but also composed of constituents at the different levels in the structural hierarchy层级.

3.4 Problems of IC analysis

(2) Constructions with discontinuous不连续的constituents will pose technical problems for tree diagrams in IC analysis. E.g. Make it up

(4) IC analysis can’t explain how the interrogative疑问词sentence and the sentence with a passive verb is transformed from their affirmative肯定语and active counterparts相对物.

3.5 Constituent structure grammar (p.77)

Constituent structure grammar: a grammar which analyzes sentences using only the idea of constituency支持者, which reveals a hierarchy层级of structural level.

Constituent structural analysis: a process of cutting structures into constituents and labeling标记constituents.

3.6 Endocentric内向的and exocentric外向的constructions

? Endocentric construction: distribution is functionally equivalent等价物, or approaching

equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole (a headed construction).

? It includes subordinate次要的(with only one head, with the head being dominant and

the other constituents dependent, e.g. poor John) and coordinate同等的constructions( more than one head, e.g. boys and girls, coffee or tea, the city Rome) ? Exocentric construction: no noticeable a center or head

(1) prepositional介词的phrase

E.g. on the shelf

(2) subordinate次要的clause

E.g. if he is going

(3) English basic sentences

E.g. The girl smiled.

(4) verb plus object constructions

E.g. visit Bill

4. Generative approach生成句法分析(p.83) 4.1 Deep and surface structures

Deep structure is the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i.e, the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents, such as the relations

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