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different rates of vibration of the vocal cords, they can distinguish meaning like phonemes音素. (Chinese is a typical tone language, English is not.)

3.4.4 Intonation声调(P.44)

? Intonation --- When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than to

the word in isolation, they are collectively共同地known as intonation. It plays an important role in the conveyance运输of meaning in almost every language, esp. in English. For the same sequence of words, different tones may cause different meanings for the hearers听者.

? English has 4 basic types of intonation falling, rising, fall-rise降升调and the rise-fall.

Chapter 3 Morphology

1. Morphology形态学 and morpheme 词素(p.52)

Morphology形态学: as a branch of linguistics, is the study about the internal内部的structure of words and the rules by which words are formed成形的.

Morpheme词素: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content内容; a unit that can‘t be divided into further smaller units without destroying or

drastically彻底地altering变更the meaning, whether it is lexical词汇的or grammatical文法的. (the most basic element of meaning)

1.1 Types of morphemes (p.53)

1.1.1 Free morphemes:自由语素

A free morpheme is one that may constitute组成a word by itself. E.g: boy dog if but

lexical morphemes词汇语素: ordinary nouns, verbs and adjectives which carry the content of message. (Open class of words)

functional morphemes功能语素: functional words such as conjunctions连词, articles文章,

prepositions介词and pronouns代词. (closed class of words)封闭类词的

1.1.2 Bound morphemes黏着语素:

A bound morpheme is one that may not constitute a word by itself, but to form a word, it has to co-occur with other morphemes.

E.g: -s (boys) –ing (doing) –er (teacher)

inflectional morphemes屈折语素 : morphemes which are not used to produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical function of a word.

derivational morphemes派生语素: morphemes which are used to make new words in the language and are often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem干；茎.

1.1.3 Root:

Root: A root is the base form of a word that can‘t further be analyzed without total loss of its identity.

free morphemes: internationality bound morpheme:

-ceive perceive receive conceive -mit remit宽恕 submit permit -tain retain保持 contain maintain -cur incur招致 occur recur -viv revive vivid vivacious活泼的

1.1.4 Stem

Stem: A stem is any root morpheme词素or combination of a morpheme and other morphemes to which an inflectional affix屈折词缀can be added. e.g: friends friendships national international internationalist internationalists

1.1.5 Affix词缀；附加物

prefix前缀: (im- impossible)

Affix→ infix中缀: foot/feet, goose/geese…

suffix后缀: (-ness kindness)

1.2 Morphs语言学and allomorphs语素变体(p.56)

meaningful oxen word meaningful ox en morpheme meaningless [?] [k] [s] [?] [n] sound

Morphs: are the phonological音韵学的(spoken) or orthographic拼字正确的(written) forms which realize morphemes词素, and they are minimal carriers of meaning.

Allomorphs: are phonological音韵学的or orthographic variants变体of the same morpheme. Allomorphs of plurality:多数 { -s~ -z ~ -iz ~ -? n ~ -i: ~ -ai ~ -e ~ -? }

1.3 Inflectional morphology屈折形态学

1.3.1 Inflection:

Inflection: manifestation表现of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes曲折词缀, such as number, person, finiteness有限性, aspect, and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached. E.g: tables, talks, talking, talked

1.3.2 Properties性能of the inflectional affixes词缀:曲折词缀

? It only denotes表示the grammatical relationship of the word; ? It does not change the lexical词汇的meaning of the word;

? It does not change the grammatical class of the word;

? Inflection音调变化is one of the ways for denoting指示a grammatical category; ? Inflection is one of the criteria标准for establishing建立word class.

2. Word formation构造(p.57) 2.1 Compound复合词:

refers to those words that consist of more than one free morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form.

2.2 The written form of compound

? Written as a single word: armchair ? Joined with a hyphen连字号: snow-white

? Written with ordinary spaces between two parts: washing machine

2.3 The properties of compound words

(1)Semantically语义地,the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic惯用的, not always being the sum合计total of the meaning of its components (greenhouse, hotdog);

(2) Syntactically, no matter how many elements a compound contains, it is treated as one single semantic语义的and syntactic句法的unit;

(3) Phonologically音系学地, the first element of a compound is stressed.强调

2.4 Derivation词源(p.58)

Derivation: is a process in which an affix is added to the stem to form a new word. Some can change the word class种类, but some can‘t. e.g: Length+en, fool+ish, work+er, nation+al Non+smoker, dis+obey, un+conscious

2.5 Other ways of word formation构造(p.60)

? Conversion转换: paper, dirty ? Invention虚构: Coke Kodak柯达

? Blending混合: smoke + fog smog烟雾

? Abbreviation缩写词/ clipping剪裁: advertisement ad ? Acronym首字母缩略词: AIDS APEC ? Back-formation逆序造词: editor edit ? Initialism首字母缩略词: WTO CPU ? Borrowing借入: taji; jiaozi; zongzi (Chinese)

Chapter 4 Syntax

1. Syntax语法(p.70) 1.1 Syntax:

The study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.

1.2 Sentence

In traditional grammar, sentence is understood as a set of subject and predicate谓语的expressing a complete thought. John! Poor John! Poor John ran away. Poor John ran away when the dog barked. Sentence is an independent linguistic form, which is not included by virtue of any grammatical construction in any larger linguistic form. That is, sentence is the largest free form. (Word is the smallest free form.)

1.3 Compositionality语意合成性:

The idea that the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words组成单

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