between sound patterns and specific objects or events. Besides, the sound patterns of animals are quite limited in number and the objects being referred to are also limited.
(2) An onomatopoeia拟声is a word made up by imitating模仿the natural sound. Some may argue that language is non-arbitrary非任意的.
e.g: the clang叮当声of a bell the ticks of a clock But onomatopoeias are small in number in any language.
(3) Compound words合成词are non-arbitrary in the sense that there is a necessary connection between the two elements in each of them. e.g: postman
Each element of a compound is entirely arbitray. Why did English people call him a “man”, but not a “dog”?
b. Duality二重性
Duality --- Language is a system which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.
Primary level --- morphemes词素, words, phrases and sentences which are meaningful.
Secondary level --- a sequence of meaningless sounds or segments片段which combine to form the units of meaning.
Meaningful:
sentences: The girls are going shopping. phrases: NP VP
words: the + girls + are + going + shopping
morphemes: {the} + {girl} + {s} +{be} +{s}+ {go} + {ing} + {shop}+ {ing}
Meaningless:
syllables音节: [e?] + [g?:lz] + [a:] + [g?u] + [i?] + [∫?p] + [i?]
sounds: [e] + [?] + [g] + [?:] + [l] +[z] + [a:] + [g] +[?u] + [i] + [?] + [∫]+[?]+[p] + [i] + [?]
c. Productivity
Productivity --- A speaker of any language has the ability to produce a sentence he has never heard before and to understand any sentence he hears for the first time.
e.g. He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who…
Q: Do you think the sounds the parrots produce have the feature of creativity?
K: No. parrots can only draw their calls from the fixed repertoire which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible.
d. Interchangeability可交换性
Interchangeability --- Man can both produce and receive messages, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease.
e. Displacement移位
Displacement is a property性质of language enabling people to talk about things remote遥远的either in space or in time.
Language can refer to things removed from the immediate直接的situations of the speaker; it can be used to refer to things or events which are not present (real or imagined, in the past, present or in future).
Q: Do you think the bee dance has the feature of displacement as human language?
A: The bees must communicate about the food immediately on returning to the hive. Bees do not “talk” about themselves, the hives, let alone about people, animals, hopes or desires. What’s more, they do not dance about the food they discovered last month nor do they speculate推测about future discoveries.
f. Specialization特殊化
Specialization --- Man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication. Speech is a specialized activity. We use it in a detached分离manner.
e.g: A mother can tell a story to her child while slicing up a cake.
g. Cultural transmission
Language is culturally transmitted from one generation to the next by a process of learning but not genetically.从遗传学角度
? ?
Q: Why can‘t Tarzan, a human being, understand human language?
A: Language is culturally transmitted传输. The ability to speak a language is transmitted from one generation to the next by a process of teaching and learning, but not genetically.
1.6.4 Origin of language (p.9)
? Ding-dong theory: primitive原始的简单的man giving vocal expression to the objects he
encountered遇到
? Sing-song歌咏theory: primitive ritual仪式songs of praise
? Pooh-pooh发呸声theory: interjections感叹词which express the speaker’s emotions ? Ye-he-ho theory: the cries叫喊uttered发出while working
? Ta-ta再见theory: combination of certain gestures and tongue movements ? Bow-wow狗汪汪叫声theory: imitation of animal cries and other sounds in nature
1.7 Functions of language (p.13)
? Informative教育性的function: declarative陈述的sentences ? Phatic交流感情的communion: farewells, comments on weather ? Directive function: imperatives祈使句 ? Interrogative疑问词function: questions ? Expressive function: My God!
? Evocative唤起的function: jokes, advertising, propaganda宣传 ? Performative述行成分function: I declare宣布the meeting open.
1.8 Important distinctions区别in linguistics (p.15)
(1) Descriptive vs. prescriptive（描述与规定）(two types of linguistic study):
If the linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language, it is descriptive；if the study aims to prescribe规定how things ought to be (to lay down rules for ‘correct and standard’ behavior in using language), it is prescriptive. a. Do/Don’t say X. b. People do/don’t say X.
(2) Synchronic vs. Diachronic（共时与历时） (two types of linguistic descriptive study): A synchronic description takes a fixed instant一个固定的即时as its point of observation. Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history. Exercises:
a. a study of the development of the Indo-European tongues b. a study of Shakespeare’s language
(3) Langue & parole (Saussure, early 20th century)（语言与言语）:
Langue refers to the abstract linguistic抽象的语言system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization实现of langue in actual use.
(4) Competence & Performance (Chomsky, 1950s)（语言能力/语言运用）
Competence is an ideal language user’s underlying潜在的knowledge about the system of rules; performance is the actual use of language in concrete实在的situations.
Question for discussion:
What is the difference between Saussure’s langue, parole and Chomsky’s competence and performance?
They differ in that Saussure took a sociological社会学的view of language and his notion概念of langue is a matter of social conventions惯例, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence能力is a property of the mind of each individual.
(5) Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations (组合关系和聚合关系）
a. Syntagmatic (horizontal/chain) relation is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present. E.g: The boy kicked the ball.
*Boy the ball kicked the. (syntactic语法的) *The ball kicked the boy. (semantic语义的)
There are syntactic and semantic conditions the words in a syntagmatic组合关系的relation must meet.
Syntagm （组合）
? Sounds after sounds; words following words ? Horizontal水平线 relations ? Temporal暂时的sequence
E.g.: syntagmatic: She can go I may come You might leave
b. Paradigmatic词形变化的relation (associative联合的/ vertical垂直的/ choice选择relation):
A relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent. E.g. ____ is smiling. The boy The woman The teacher
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