LINGUISTICS(10)

5.2 Interpersonal function (clause子句as exchange)

Interpersonal function: language serves to establish and maintain social relations, for the expression of social roles.

Subject and Residue (the rest of the clause) form a clause to express the mood in the senses of the indicative陈述语气, the imperative祈使语气, and within the indicative the declarative陈述的and the interrogative疑问词.

I. Indicative陈述语气: Subject + Finite / Finite + Subject A. Declarative陈述的: Subject + Finite: I will go. B. Interrogative疑问词

1. Yes/No interrogative: Finite + Subject Will you go? 2. WH-interrogative,

(1) WH-element as a subject: Subject + Finite Who will go?

(2)WH-element not as a subject: Finite + Subject Where will you go?

II. Imperative祈使语气: no subject + finite shut up! a. Pass the salt. b. Please pass the salt. c. Can you pass the salt?

d. Could you possibly pass the salt?

e. You couldn‘t possibly pass the salt, could you? The more indirect the demand, the more polite it is felt to be.

5.3 Textual function (clause as message)

Textual function: language has to provide for making links with itself and with features of the situation in which it is used.

Theme: is the element which serves as the point of departure of the message; it is that with which the clause is concerned.

Rheme表位（指为主体提供新信息的句子成分）: the remainder of the message, the part in which the theme is developed.

Chapter 5 Semantics

1. What is semantics语义学? (p.104)

? It is the study of meaning.

1.1 Ogden奥格登and Richards理查兹

The Meaning of Meaning (1923) 22 major categories of meaning

1.2 Meaning as naming (p.105)

Naming theory (Plato): the meaning of expression is what it refers to, or names.

The semantic relationship holding between a word and the thing it denotes表示is the relationship of naming.

In other words, words are “names” or “labels” for things in our mind or in our experience.

Limitations of the naming theory:

? Meaning is abstract and not related to individual things. The meaning of book is related to

the generation of the common properties of things which can be called books.

? Meaning understood in this theory can at best cover only part of nouns, but not the rest of

words of this class, nor words of other classes.

e.g.: sincerity, red, that, quickly, if, and, from.

1.3 Meaning as concept (p.106)

Conceptualist概念论的theory (Ogden and Richards) : expressions actually mean the concept or idea associated关联的with them.

Any particular sound image is psychologically associated with a particular concept.

Every one of us who knows the word or expression has a concept or idea in his mind associated with it.

Semantic Triangle by Ogden and Richards:

Explanation:

? The symbol refers to the linguistic elements (mainly referring to words). ? The referent is the object in the real world or in man’s experience.

? Reference refers to the concept about the referent指示物. Concept is the generalization概

括of a class of individual objects.

? A linguistic语言的form symbolizes a concept and therefore there is no direct (necessary

and intrinsic本质的) relation between the symbol (the word) and the referent. The word is associated with the referent by virtue of reference (concept).

? The symbol and concept are linked by a psychologically心理上地associative联想的

bond.

Merits优点:

? It recognizes the close relation between meaning and concept and the role of concept in

forming meaning.

Limitations:

(1) Since it only looks at the meaning of words, it can’t explain how the meanings of morphemes词素in a polymorphemic多语素的word are related to each other and how they are organized into the meaning of the word. E.g: uncompromisingly坚决地

(2) It fails未通过 to interpret解释the polysemic多义的phenomenon, i.e. why a word may have several different meanings and how these meaning are related. e.g.: ball

(3) It fails to interpret the question of why words with different meaning may have the same referent. e.g.: morning star/ evening star Washington/ the capital of USA

(4) According to the Semantic Triangle语义三角 , each word in a language has its referent. However, for some words, there are not referents to them, e.g: if, and, so, perhaps, therefore. (5) The referents of some words may vary according to the context in which they occur. e.g.: good car/ good teacher/ good dictionary/ good-hearted

(6) To summarize, the Semantic Triangle basically suffers from looking at the meaning of words in isolation and ignoring the interrelation相互关系 of words and the semantic structure of a language.

1.4 Meaning as behavior (p.107)

Behaviorism行为主义(Bloomfield布洛姆菲尔德):

Language is regarded a kind of human behavior and can be treated in the way of treating non-verbal behaviors of human beings. Bloomfield‘s stimulus刺激-reaction model:

S r s R

Jill is hungry. She sees an apple and by saying something gets Jack to fetch it for her. S: Jill’s hunger r: a linguistic response s: a linguistic stimulus for Jack

R: non-linguistic RESPONSE回应 of getting the apple

1.5 Meaning as context语境 (p.107)

Contextualist语境主义的view (inspired by Malinovsky, proposed by Firth): Context determines the meaning; meaning is found in the context within which a particular expression is uttered表达suggests that we can derive meaning from the observable可观察的context. Two kinds of context: (1) a linguistic context and (2) a situational context.

Situational context: the spatio-temporal时间空间的situation in which utterance表达is made. Situational context mainly include:

(1) the setting (formal, informal…)

(2) the speaker and hearer (relationship, position…) (3) the activities they are engaged in at the time

(4) the presence出席or absence of other participants (relationship, position…) (5) the presence of various不同的external objects and events

百度搜索“77cn”或“免费范文网”即可找到本站免费阅读全部范文。收藏本站方便下次阅读，免费范文网，提供经典小说综合文库LINGUISTICS(10)在线全文阅读。