13.通用语Lingua Franca和洋泾浜语Pidgin的区别
⑴Pidgin is used for some practical purposes,such as trading,by groups of people who donot know each other’s langauge.Lingua Franca may have native speakers such as English,
⑵Pidgin is not a native language of a particular region,but simply a marginal language used by people whose cultures are sharply separated and whoes business contact is very specialized.
10.法国外科医生Broca是第一个证明damage to a specific area of the brain results in a speech production deficit.
11.德国内科医生Carl Wernicke在1874发表的论文假设there was more than one language area in the left brain. 12.Angular gyrus lies behind Wernicke‘s area.this area is crucial for the matching of a spoken form with a perceived object, for the naming of objects, for the comprehension of written language and require connections between visual and speech organs.
13.When we listen,the word is heard and comprehended via Wernicke‘s area.
14.The critical period hypothesis refers to a period in one’s life extending from about two to puberty. 定义！！ 15.Lenneberg的推断，推出了Cerebral plasticity.
17. 早期学者针对语言和思想的观点
⑴Plato suggested that thought was the soul’s discourse with itself. 柏拉图认为语言和思想相互统一的。
⑵Aristotle, who argued that mankind could not have the same languages and that languages were but signs of psychological experiences.
亚里士多德认为语言只是人类体现的符号。
The debate between them, one being mentalist, other empiricist. 两个人的观点向背。一个是心灵主义，另一个是经验主义。
⑶Watson, thinking involved the same motor activities used in speaking, Bloomfield, thinking was a system of movements that had been reduced from actual speech to the point where they were no longer visible. 美国的Watson承袭了Plato的观点，Bloomfield提出了近似的观点。 三、问答题
1.in what cortical regions are speech and language thought to be localized?
In what have come to be known as Broca‘s area, Wernicke‘s area and angular gyrus, all located in the left hemisphere of the brain.
2.how In your opinion does language relate thought and culture?
Language doesn‘t determine the way the speaker perceives the world, but largely functions as a means by which information can be stored and received, by which a culture transmits its belief, values and norms, and by which the speaker interacts other members of the cultures.
3.Describe the processes of language perception, comprehension and production.
It‘s been proposed that the brain activity involved in hearing, understanding and then saying a word would follow a definite pattern,
when we listen, the word is heard and comprehended via Wernicke‘s area, this signal is then transferred to Broca‘s area where preparations are made to produce it. A signal is then sent to the motor area controlling the vocal tract to physically articulate the word.
When we speak, words are drawn from Wernicke‘s area and sent to Broca‘s area which determines the details of their form and pronunciation. The appropriate instructions are then sent to the motor area. Interference from the mother tongue:
Mother tongue interference is found at the level of pronunciation, morphology, syntax, vocabulary and meaning,
and can be predicated by contrasting the grammatical or other systems of the native and target languages. Interlingual interference:
Interlingual interference，or cross-association, occurs when the learner mixes rules and patterns of the target language and produce hybrid structures. Overgeneralization：
The use of previously available strategies in new situations, i.e. the application of a particular pattern or rule of the target language in many other linguistic situations 二、问答题
1.why is the word order in Modern English more rigid than that in Old English?
Because in Modern English there are no longer the elaborate morphological system used in Old English, such as the case marking system, to help to indicate grammatical relations. therefore, it is no longer possible to identify the functional roles of nouns by their inflectional endings.
The functional notions of subject and object have to be indicated largely by the syntactic position of nouns in a linear order, resulting in a system with stricter constraints on word order.
2.what features of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language? Language is a rule-governed system. Language is basically vocal. Language is arbitrary.
Language is used for human communication.
3.what‘s Broca‘s area and what will happen if any damage is inflicted upon it?
⑴In 1861, a French surgeon and anatomist Paul Broca discovered that somewhere in the frontal lobe in the left cerebral hemisphere had something to do with speech difficulty. this place is known as Broca’s area.
⑵Any damage to sites in the left cerebral hemisphere will result in a patient’s language disorder, whereas destruction of corresponding sites in the right hemisphere leave linguistic capacities intact.
⑶Therefore if any damage is inflicted upon this area, it will result in word finding difficulties and problems with syntax.
4.sate briefly your understanding of the differences between the term acquisition and the term learning in language acquisition study?
⑴The distinction between acquisition and learning was proposed by the American SLA scholar Stephen Krashen on the assumption that they are different processes.
⑵Acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.
⑶Learning is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.
⑷It’s recognized that children acquired their native language without explicit learning, which a second language is more commonly learned but to some degree may also be acquired, depending on the environmental setting and the input received by the L2learner.
⑸A rule can be learned before it is internalized(i.e. acquired),but having learned a rule does not necessarily preclude having to acquire it later.
5.suprasegmental features? how does it function in conveying meaning?
⑴ the phonological features that occur above the sound segmental level are called suprasegmental features. ⑵the major suprasegmental features of English includes word stress, sentence stress and intonation. ⑶ The suprasegmental features distinguish meaning. 超切分特征是在语音切分成分层面之上的音系特征。
主要包括单词重音、语句重音和语调。 超切分特征区分意义。
6.what is the nature of language change in historical linguistics? 语言的本质在历史语言学中的含义？ ⑴language change is inevitable.
⑵as a general rule, language change is universal, continuous,to a considerable degree, regular and systematic. ⑶language change is extensive, taking place in virtually all aspects of the grammar—in phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon and semantics.
⑷when language change is in progress, phonemes, morphemes, words, and grammatical rules may be borrowed, added, lost, or altered, and meanwhile, the meaning of individual lexical items or strings of words may expand ,narrow,or shift.
7.What’s the difference between the instrumental motivation and the integrative motivation of the learner’s?工具性与介入性学习动机的不同点？
⑴usually, adults are motivated to learn a second language because of a communicative need, they may learn a second language in order to use it functionally when they intend to use it as an instrument for the purpose.
⑵in certain situations an integrative motivation may be more powerful in facilitations may count for more. ⑶when the target language functions as a foreign language ,the learner is likely to benefit from an integrative motivation;
⑷but when the target language functions as a second language, an instrumental motivation is more effective. 8.词素的类别和使用How many morphemes are there in the English language? state what they are and illustrate how they work?
⑴there are two: free and bound morphemes.
⑵free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves.
⑶bound morphemes are those that cant be used independently but have to combined with other morphemes. ⑷either free or bound, to form a word, it includes 2types:
A root is often seen as part of a word,it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning, it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.
⑸Affixes are morphemes that are added to an already existing morpheme to form a new word while changing its meaning and grammatical relations. it consists of both inflectional and derivational affixes,
音素、音位、音位变体的定义及关系Explain with examples 3notions of phone, phoneme and allophone, how they are related.
⑴A phone is a speech sound, it is a phonetic unit. any sound we hear in the course of communication is a phone, such as [ u:],[ l ];
⑵A phoneme is a phonological unit, it’s not a concrete sound but an abstract notion, it’s a collection of features. it can be realized as different phones in different phonetic contexts. Such as ,the phoneme[ l ] can be realized as a clear[ l ] or a dark [ l ],depending on where it occurs in a sound combination.
⑶The actually phonetic realization of a phoneme are called its allophones, allophones are the actual phones we hear in linguistic communication.
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