It refers to the fact that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on langauge, to put it more bluntly, language determines thought. 6.语调intonation
When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the wordin isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.
There are 4 types of intonation:
The falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone and the rise-fall tone. 7.深层结构Deep structure
It‘s an abstract level representing the basis for the meaning of a sentence. it consists of a structure generated by phrase structure rules and contains lexical items from the lexcion, but no transformations have yet applied to it. 8.连字符Diacritics
Diacritics are a set of symbols that added to the letter symbols to make finer distinctions than the letters alone make possible. Diacritics are only used in narrow transcription.
For example, in broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sound[l ]in words like leaf [li;f],feel[fi;l]. 9.历史和比较语言学Historical and comparative linguistics It‘s a study of ongoing changes that languages have undergone.
It‘s historical because it deals with the historical development of individual languages.
It‘s comparative in the sense that it aims at developing and elucidating the genetic relationships that exist between and among languages, classifying related languages into language families and reconstructing their ancestral languages.
10.正向转移Positive transfer
Transfer can be positive or negative,. Presumably, positive transfer occurs when a first language pattern is identical with, or similar to, a target language.
例如,French people find no difficulty in learning the English word ”table” cos it has the same meaning as the French word” table”. 11.反向转移Negative transfer
Negative transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language.反向转移即人们常说的干扰 干扰Interference
The effect of one‘s first language knowledge on the learning of a second language. 12.人际交流Intrapersonal communication
It refers to one of the two major functions that language serves. as a means of intrapersonal communication, language facilitates thinking, speech behavior and action for the individual.
判断
3.the word ‘language‘ preceded by the zero-article ,it implies that linguistics studies not any particular language. 4.in order to discover the nature of the underlying language system ,what the linguists has to do first if to study language facts.
5.language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facts, so it's hardly possible for the linguistics to deal with it all at once. 判断题
6.Frist drew the attention of the linguists were the sounds used in languages.
4.判断题：the syntactic rules of any language are finite in number ,and yet there is no limit to the number of
sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.
5.判断题:A finite verb, informally called the main verb of a sentence, expresses existence, action or occurrence which is limited by person, number, tense and mood.
19.判断题：although predicate and argument are the same kind of unit in terms of their componential make-up, they have different roles in the whole predication. the predicate can be regarded as the main element, for it includes tense, modality, ect. it may also said to govern the arguments for it determines the number of nature of the arguments.
20.The analysis of meaning is a highly abstract and complicated matter.
17.判断题a change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as Epenthesis. (此现象属于sound addition) 例子
Spinle→spindle emty→empty glimse→glimpse timer→timber 24.美国的Stephenson Krashen区分了Acquisition和 Learning
He said Acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.
Learning, it is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.
25.判断题 The learner’s transitional competence moving along a learning continuum stretching from one’s L1competence to the target language competence.
26.About the interlanguage, specifically, it consists of a series of interlocking and approximate linguistic systems in-between and yet distinct from the learner‘s native and target languages. It‘s a product of L2learning, mother tongue interference, overgeneralization of the target language rules, and learning and communicative strategies of the learner.
语际语包含一系列与本族语和目的语的相关并相似的语言体系，既介于本族语和目的语之间，又不同于他们的语言体系。语际语是第二语言训练、母语干扰、对目的语语言规则概括以及学习者的学习和交际策略的综合产物。
27.判断题 although its found that formal instruction hardly affects the natural route of SLA, it does provide opportunities to receive comprehensible input, and in so doing enables the classroom learner to perform a wider range of linguistic tasks than the naturalistic learner and thereby accelerates the rate of acquisition. 20.判断题Children first acquire the sounds found in all languages of the world, no matter what language they are exposed to, and in later stages acquire the ‘more difficult’ sounds.
21.The emergency of articulatory skills begins around the age when children start to produce babbling sounds. 22.Researchers are particularly interested in the increasing complexity of negative sentences in child language development. they have found that correction and reinforcement are not key factors in child language development.
23.判断题 SLA is primarily the study of how learners acquires or learn an additional language after they have acquired their first language.(L1) 16.判断题 A safe conclusion from Genie’s case for the moment is that the language faculty of an average human degenerates after the critical period and consequently, most linguistic skills cannot develop. 8.判断题the standard language is a superposed,socially prestigious dialect of language,it's the langauge employed by the government and the judiciary system,used by the mass media,and taught in educational institutions,including school settings where the langaue is taught as a foreign or second language. 9.Language varieties other han the standard are called nonstandard,or vernacular languages. 10.The standard language of many countries,is also designated as the national or official language. 11.Lingua franca,an italian term literally meaning‖frankish language‖or‖frankish tongue‖.
12.The spoken language of modern china普通话embodies thepronunciation of the Beijing dialect, the grammar of Northern chinese dialects, the vocabulary of modern colloquial chinese.
42.判断题syntactically,the verb of an old English sentence precedes, rather than follows,the subject ,as is indicated by the transcription.
43.Norman Conquer makrked the dawning of the Middle English period. 44.Bilingual,pidin＆creole speakers contribute to formation of新语言变体
Langue和parole的区别
⑵U.S.A linguist N.Chomsky N.Chomsky
in1950针对Saussure’s langue&parole提出Competence和performance ⑶曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家
Sapir---language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communication ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.
Hall----language is the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.
Chomsky---from now on I will consider language to be a set of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.
⑷U.S.A Linguist Charles Hockett Charles Hockett ----design features
1.statistics resulting from careful investigations show that there have been over5,000languages in the world, about two thirds of which have not had written form.
Acoustic-–studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer. 2.how are the English consonants classified?
By place of articulation and By manner of articulation
3.how do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? who do you think will be more interested in the different between say[i]and[i],[p] and[ph],a phonetician or a philologist? why?
语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么? Phonetics —description of all speech sounds and their find differences.
Phonology —description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.
A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos differences in meaning.
4.what‘s a phone? how is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme? Phone—a speech sound ,a phonetic unit.
Phoneme---a collection of abstract sound features, a phonological unit. Allophones---actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.
5.what is a minimal pair and a minimal set? why is it important to identify the minimal set in a language?为什么区分最小对立组在一种语言中非常重要?
Minimal pair—two sound combinations identical in every way except in one sound element that occurs in the same position.
除了出现在同一位置的一个语音成分不同外,其他部分都一样的两个语音组合. Minimal set—a group of sound combinations with the above feature.
一组具有上述特征的语音组合.
By identifying the minimal pair or the minimal set of a language, a philologist can identify its phonemes. 通过分析一种语言的最小对立对或最小对立组,音位学家能辨别出它的音位. 6.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow one transcription differ? Broad transcription—one letter symbol for one sound.
Narrow transcription—diacritics are added to the one-letter symbols to show the finer differences between sounds.
7.explain the sequential rule ,the assimilation rule and the deletion rule. 有序规则Sequential rules
Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. 同化规则Assimilation rules
The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by‘ copying ‘a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. 省略规则Deletion rule
It‘s a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although its orthographically represented. 话语的言外之义是说话人通过故意违反某一准则而获得这种听者能懂的暗含之意。 1.语用学的几个重要的理论
⑴言语行为理论Speech act theory
由英国哲学家John Austin在20世纪50年代末提出 ⑵会话原则CP 逻辑哲学家Paul Grice提出; 2. 合作原则的准则4Maxim of Cooperative Principle
数量 the maxim of Quantity-----你说的话应包含所需内容且不可超过内容要求 Make your contribution as informative as required;
Do not make your contribution more informative than is required 质量the maxim of Quality -----不要说你认为是假的话或你缺乏足够证据的话 Do not say what you believe to false.
Do not say for which you lack adequate evidence 关系 the maxim of relation-----使你的话与话题相关be relevant 方式 the maxim of manner-----避免模糊、歧义，应简明有序 Avoid obscurity of expression and ambiguity; Be brief/be orderly.
3.六七十年代时，美国哲学语言学家John Searle对言外行为分成了5类 阐述性Representatives---to commit the speaker to something’s being the
Case ,to the truth of what has been said. 例词:stating, believing, swearing, hypothesizing最有代表性, 指令性Directives---are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something.
例词:inviting, suggesting ,requesting ,advising ,warning ,threatening, ordering 是特有实例
承诺性Commissives---when speaking the speaker puts himself under obligation. 例词:promising, undertaking, vowing最典型
表达类Expressives---the speaker is expressing his feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs.
例词:apologizing ,thanking, congratulating
宣告类Declarations---the successful performance of an act of this type brings
about the correspondence between what is said and reality. 例句
I now declare the meeting open/I appoint you chairman of the committee/I fire you. 这五类differ in their strength or force. 4.Semantics 和Pragmatics的区分
Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication.
The basic difference between them is that pragmatics considers meaning in context, traditional semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use.
5.语境中听者与说话者shared knowledge is of two types:
The knowledge of the language they use, the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place. 6.Sentence meaning与Utterance meaning的区别 Sentence meaning---abstract, decontextualized.
Utterance meaning---concrete, contextualized it‘s based on sentence meaning, it‘s the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. 区分句子和话句，类似区分语义和语用学，关键在于是否考虑语境。
7.While most utterances take the form of sentences ,i.e. most utterances are complete sentences In terms of syntax, some utterances are not, and some can‘t even be restored to complete sentences 1.描述变化的本质characterized the nature of language change
All living languages change with time.language change is not only universal and inevitable,but also systematic,extensive,on-going,and gradual.Language change is a rule-governed behavior,involving all components of the grammar.
2.语言变化的原因list the major causes of language change
Sound assimilation,Rule simplification and internal borrowing与语法变化有关 ⑴语音同化Sound assimilation
Assimilative processes are phonological changes due to physiological mechanisms.it also involves vowel nasalization and morphological and lexical changes. ⑵规则简化Rule simplification
It‘s a type of spontaneous morphological rule change involves exceptional plural forms of nouns.the same kind of analogic change is exemplified by the regularization of some borrowed words whose plural formation rule is different from the regular english. ⑶内部借用Internal Borrowing
It‘s motivated by the need to lessen the burden on memory is called internal borrowing.it represents a continual readjustment of a language‘s grammatical system as it develops from one state of equilibrium to another. ⑷规则细化 Elaboration
It occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communicative clarity or expressiveness. ⑸社会因素Social triggers ⑹文化转移Cultural transmission
⑺儿童语法接近成人语法Children’s approximation toward the adult grammar.
A generally accepted view among language acquisition scholars is that children acquire their native language not through formal instrucation of grammatical rules, they often construct their personal information they hear.
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