跨文化交际复习资料(3)

? The family also teaches gender roles, views on individualism and collectivism, perceptions of aging, and social skills. ? History and culture are interwoven.

? The study of intercultural communication and the study of history go hand in hand.

? History is the witness that testifies to the passing of time; it illumines reality, vitalizes memory, provides guidance in daily life, and brings us knowledge of antiquity.

? The influence of history is difficult to explain, because it contains all of the deep structure elements of culture.

? A culture’s history affects individual perception and behavior and how people relate to other cultures.

? Historical events help explain the character of a culture.

? History is a key element in developing a culture’s identity, values, goals, and expectations.

Chapter 3(不考)

? Worldview is a culture’s orientation toward God, humanity, nature, the universe,life, death, sickness, and other philosophical issues concerning existence.

? Although worldview is communicated in a variety of ways (such as secularism and spirituality), religion is the predominant element of culture from which one’s worldview is derived.

? Although all religions have some unique features, they share many similarities. These include, among other things, speculation about the meaning of life, sacred scriptures, rituals, ethics, and a safe haven for their members. ? The six most prominent religious traditions are Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Hinduism,Buddhism, and Confucianism. These traditions present their members with advice on how to live life and with explanations about death.

Chapter 4 P182

? There are many reasons behind the need to understand identity, including personal and psychological well-being. Identity is also a focal point of intercultural communication, which is becoming increasingly important as a result of both globalization and domestic diversity within the United States. ? Identity is a highly abstract, dynamic, multifaceted concept that defines who you are. Turner places identities into three general categories: human, social, and personal.Hall uses three similar categories: personal, relational,and communal.

? Every individual has multiple identities—racial, ethnic, gender, national,

regional, organizational, personal, and perhaps cyber/fantasy—that act in concert. The importance of any single identity is a result of the situation.

? Identity is acquired through interaction with other members of one’s cultural group.The family exerts a primary influence on early identity formation. Identity development models have been constructed by Phinney and by Martin and Nakayama.

? Identities are established through group membership and are enacted in a variety of ways, including rites of passage, personal appearance, and participation in com-memorative events. Concepts of identity within the same group can change over time.

? Identity plays a critical role in intercultural communication. Competent intercultural communication is achieved when the participants find commonality in ascribed and avowed identities.

? As society becomes increasingly multicultural, new concepts of cultural identity are evolving.

? Stereotyping occurs when persons categorize experiences about another group of people and let those categorizations guide their behavior. Stereotypes refer to the behavioral norm of the whole group of people, not individual persons.

? A prejudice is a strong feeling or attitude toward a particular social group or thing.

? Racist persons believe that their race is superior to another race of people. ? Ethnocentrism occurs when persons believe their culture is superior to other cultures.

Chapter 5 P219-220

? Culture and communication are so intertwined that it is easy to conceive of culture as communication and communication as culture.

? Culture seeks to tell its members what to expect from life, and thereby reduces confusion and helps predict the future.

? The basic elements of culture are history, religion, values, social organizations, and language.

? Culture is shared, learned behavior that promotes individual and social survival, adaptation, and growth and development.

? Culture most directly affects communication because culture is (1) learned, (2) transmitted from generation to generation, (3) based on symbols, (4) dynamic, and (5) an integrated process.

? Perception is best defined as “the process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting sensory data in a way that enables us to make sense of our world.” ? Perception is the primary mechanism by which you develop your worldview.

? Beliefs are one’s convictions about the truth of something—with or without

proof.

? Values are enduring attitudes about the preferability of one belief over another.

? Cultural pattern taxonomies are used to illustrate the dominant beliefs and values of a culture.

? Dominant American cultural patterns include individualism, equal opportunity, material acquisition, science and technology, progress and change, work and play, and competitive nature.

? A prominent taxonomy of diverse culture patterns that explains both perceptual and communication differences is Hofstede’s Values Dimension, which includes (1) individualism and collectivism, (2) uncertainty avoidance, (3) power distance, (4) masculinity and femininity, and (5) long-term and short-term orientation.

? The Kluckhohn, Kluckhohn, and Strodtbeck Value Orientation taxonomy includes (1) human nature, (2) the perception of nature, (3) time, (4) activity, and (5) relationships.

? In Hall’s Context Orientation, high context and low context describe the degree to which individuals rely on internalized information.

? For Ting-Toomey, face and facework take different forms and are valued differently across cultures. Face is a function of group affiliation in collectivistic cultures and is self-derived in individualistic cultures. In conflict situations, collectivistic cultures focus on other-face and mutual face, while individualistic cultures focus on self-face.

Chapter 6(不考)

? Language allows us to exchange abstract ideas, which sets us apart from other animal species.

? Language is an integral part of identity.

? Based on the language they use, people can be categorized into groups such as age, gender, and socio-income level.

? The use of a common language enables people to organize into groups and perform collective activities.

? Language is a set of shared symbols that people use to create meaning; the relationship between the sign and the meaning is often arbitrary.

? There are usually variations within language groups, such as accents, dialects, argot, and slang.

? Corporate brands and logos are often understood across cultures irrespective of language.

? Culture and language form a symbiotic relationship because without one, the other could not exist.

? Cultural values, or dimensions, can be reflected in the language used by a

culture.

? In any intercultural communication interaction, it is probable that someone will be using a second language.

? Using a second language can be both physically and cognitively demanding.

? When speaking to someone who is using a second language, you should be mindful, monitor your speech rate, vocabulary, and nonverbal feedback, and check to ensure that the other person understands your message.

? Interpreters work with spoken or signed language; translators work with written messages.

? Consecutive translation is when you stop every minute or so to allow the translator to relay your message in the other language.Simultaneous translation occurs while the speaker talks in the original language.

? In a cross-cultural marriage, language plays a key role in communication and can also influence identity and power relationships.

? “One parent, one language” is an approach in which each parent uses a different language to interact with his or her children. The children grow up bilingual.

? English is the most common language used on the Internet at this time. However, the increasing number of Chinese users could alter this in the future. ? Some scholars have predicted an oligarchy of major world languages—Chinese, Spanish, English, Arabic, and Russian—in the future.Using computer-mediated communication (CMC) can affect the interaction between members of high-context cultures.One way of enhancing your intercultural communication competency is to learn another language.

Chapter 7 P283

? Nonverbal communication is important to the study of intercultural communication because people make judgments about others based on their nonverbal behavior, use nonverbal messages to create impressions, and use non-verbals to manage interaction.

? Nonverbal communication is culture-bound.

? Nonverbal communication involves all nonverbal stimuli in a communication set-ting that (1) are generated by both the source and his or her use of the environment and (2) have potential message value for the source or receiver. ? Nonverbal messages may be intentional or unintentional.

? Nonverbal communication has five basic functions: to repeat, to complement, to substitute for a verbal action, to regulate, and to contradict a communication event.

? Nonverbal actions seldom occur in isolation.

? Nonverbal communication and culture are similar in that both are learned, both are passed on from generation to generation, and both involve shared understandings.

? Studying nonverbal behavior can lead to the discovery of a culture’s underlying attitudes and values.

? Studying nonverbal behavior can assist us in isolating our own ethnocentrism.

? The body is a major source of nonverbal messages. These messages are communicated by means of general appearance, skin color, attire, body movements (kinesics), posture, gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, touch, and paralanguage.

? Cultures differ in their perception and use of personal space, seating, and furniture arrangement.

? We can understand a culture’s sense of time by learning about how members of that culture view informal time and the past, present, and future, and whether or not their orientation toward time is monochronic or polychronic ? The use of silence varies from culture to culture

Chapter 8 P324

? The communication context is the cultural environment in which communication occurs.

? Culturally diverse rules specify how communication is to take place by prescribing the appropriate behaviors for given contexts.

? Rules concerning informality, formality, assertiveness, interpersonal harmony, and social status can be found in every communication setting. ? Intercultural communication takes place both in international and domestic business settings.

? In the cross-cultural business setting, protocol influences how contacts are made, greeting behavior, personal appearance, gift giving, and conversational taboos.

? Management styles differ across cultures. These styles influence leadership and decision making.

? Negotiation styles differ across cultures. These differences are revealed in how cultures view the process of negotiations, the selection of negotiators, business ethics, and participation practices.

? Intercultural conflict is part of many intercultural business contacts.

? In North America, strategies for managing conflict include avoidance, accommodation, competition, compromise, and collaboration. These strategies are often different from the methods of managing conflict found in other cultures.

? Conflict can frequently be reduced by identifying the cause, keeping an open mind, slowing down, and focusing on ideas rather than people.

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