有summery的才是好资料.（每个名词解释控制在3-5句话，不能多也不能少：定义，作用，原因）每个概念的作用。
所有教材资料的 共同大问题：同义复用，一个意思，本质角度少但说法太多了，需要精简。没详细的先标上红色 (自己针对每个知识点提问【转换用词、转换问法至少2种】，余同)
研究宏经的指标Economists collect data on many variables, but there are four that are the most important for the discussion of macroeconomic topics. These are (1) prices, (2) unemployment, (3) gross domestic product (GDP) and (4) Real GDP。 其他主要宏观经济变量The Other Major Macroeconomic Variables。
===========================国民收入帐户
最常用的宏经指标，宏经数据Among the most frequently used statistics(data) are the gross domestic product (GDP)，the consumer price index (CPI)，and the unemployment rate. 国民收入帐户的含义National Income Accounting。The measurement of aggregate economic activity，particularly national income and its components.
国民收入的衡量Measurement of GDP、GNP、NNP。GDP、GNP and NNP constitute the three fundamental(crucial) measures of an economy’s productive performance.
GDP的含义。Gross domestic product (GDP) is the market value of all final goods and services produced within a country in a given period of time.
“GDP is the Market Value”。Output is valued at market prices.
“Of All Final” 。It records only the value of final goods，not intermediate goods (the value is counted only once).最终产品的含义。Final goods are those that are in the hands of the ultimate consumer. Intermediate goods are those that are used as an input in another good that will be sold. It is double counting to add purchases of intermediate goods into GDP，since those goods are counted again when their final goods are bought. For example，if we measured the value of the seed that became the wheat plus the wheat that became the flour plus the flour that became the bread plus the bread，we would be overstating the total value of output，because the final good—in this case，bread—includes in its price the value of all intermediate goods that went into its production.
“Goods and Services ”。It includes both tangible goods (food，clothing，cars) and intangible services (haircuts，housecleaning，doctor visits). “Produced”。It includes goods and services currently produced，not transactions involving goods produced in the past. “Within a Country”。（regardless of the ownership of the factors of production）It measures the value of production within the geographic confines of a country.
“In a Given Period of Time”。It measures the value of production that takes place within a specific interval of time，usually a year or a quarter (three months).
GDP的作用Uses of National Income Statistics。GDP is the measure of the value of economic activity.
Standard of Living（主要）。GDP is a good (the best single) measure of the economic
well-being(Standard of Living、happiness) of a society. GDP per person tells us the income and expenditure of the average person in the economy. In general，Higher GDP per person indicates a higher standard of living. （只说主要的）
Policy Formulation形成。In the compilation of GDP statistics，the government had already
gathered a lot of information of the economy. The government can base on these figures to plan and decide its policies.
International Comparison。By converting the local GDP figures into a common unit ( usually in US$ )，we can compare the standard of living of different nations. It helps to show the rate of growth or development of different nations.
Business Decision。The GDP figures can show the level of development of different industries and sectors of an economy. It helps the businessmen to plan for production.
GDP的缺陷（必须要此宏观关键字）Limitations of National Income Statistics。GDP is a measure of the overall flow of goods & services，as well as to show the general welfare of the people。However，GDP is not a perfect measure of the happiness or quality of life(economic well-being)，Some things that contribute to well-being are not included in GDP.（简单说Some exchanges are not included in GDP，such as:但之前要完整详细，之后自己挑）.
The value of leisure. Leisure is a good that is “consumed” by individuals just as cars，steak，and housing are consumed. Leisure is a source of welfare and raises our standard of living，e.g. the welfare enjoyed with a Chinese New Year Holiday. However，because leisure，in and of itself，is not purchased from anyone and the monetary value is difficult to calculate，it is not included in GDP(GDP places no value on leisure)
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Undesirable Effects of Production（Bads Generated in the Production of Goods）。GDP measures the market value of new production，but ignores any social costs（e.g.，pollution）that may be associated with production. e.g.，GDP figures had not considered the effects of pollution（The value of a clean environment is not included in GDP）(Environmental costs are not netted out of GDP)，traffic congestion(拥挤) on the economy. They have lowered our standard of living. Distribution of Income & Wealth. GDP is not a measure of individual well-being.Even when per capita GDP is calculated, it is still not a measure of individual well being as it does not consider how the income is distributed.If income is obtained by a small rate of people in a nation，the general living standard is still low compared with a nation having a more evenly distributed income or GDP.
（Income Distribution, measured by the Gini Coefficient）
Certain Nonmarket Goods and Services。Only market activity gets measured in GDP.The value of almost all activity(most items) that takes place outside of markets(never enter the marketplace、that are performed without a market transaction)，such as the value of the time parents spend with their children and the value of volunteer work are excluded in GDP。 Underground Activities，Both Legal and Illegal。Illegal transactions are not counted in GDP，such as illegal drugs，because there is no record of them. Similarly，cash-only transactions，the bread-and-butter(生计的,为了糊口的) of the underground economy，are not recorded; although the government tries to estimate their value，they are not accurately counted in GDP. Other Limitations:
Population Size. It doesn’t take into account the size of the population。A large population has a lower living standard even if its GDP is the same as that of a small population. The per capita GDP is
more useful to compare the 2 nations.
Time。Technology will be improved over time. This may not be shown in GDP figures because there may be small changes in cost and price only.
National Defense.If a nation has spent a lot of resources in the production of weapons and so on，its living standard may not be improved.
Exclusion of used goods（Sales of Used Goods）and Financial Transactions。Financial Transactions are transactions that involve trading existing assets，such as stock purchases。GDP ignores all transactions in which money or goods change hands but in which no new goods and services are produced e.g. Sales of Stocks and Bonds，Sales of Used Goods（GDP measures only current output）。（change hands:change ownership（财产等）转手）
(先详细完整，之后能微能宏，如上述你能概括为这样吗？GDP is a good measure of economic well-being because people prefer higher to lower incomes.It is not a perfect measure of
well-being because some things，such as leisure time and a clean environment，aren’t measured by GDP)
名义GDP。Nominal GDP is the value of output(goods and services) measured in terms of the current prices （ruling in the particular period）. A change in nominal GDP can therefore result either from a change in the volume of output or the level of current prices or both。increase over time（次要）。名义GDP随时间增长的原因：大多数产品的产量随时间增长。大多数产品的价格随时间增长。
实际GDP。Real GDP is the value of output measured in terms of the constant prices of some chosen base period. Since the price level remains fixed by definition ，any change in real GDP can only arise from a change in the volume of output. So we use real GDP to look at movements变化 in the overall level of economic activity.
人均GDP的含义Per-Capita GDP。 A country’s GDP divided by its population is called per-capita GDP.
GNP的含义。Gross National Product (GNP): the total market value of the final goods and services produced by all citizens (or a country’s nationals) and capital during a given period (usually one year).
GNP is calculated from GDP by adding on net (property) income from abroad.(fumula:GNP = GDP + Net property income from abroad)。Net income from abroad=Income earned from abroad - Income sent to abroad。
GDP、GNP的区别（GDP versus GNP）。（先说2者定义）GDP includes income earned domestically by foreigners，but it does not include income earned by domestic residents in other countries. GNP is total income earned by residents of a nation regardless of where it is earned（no matter where they reside or are located）。GNP-GDP=income earned by its citizens (including income of
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those located abroad) minus income of non-residents located in that country。本国居民在本国收入1，本国居民在外国收入2，外国居民在本国收入3 ，GDP本国收入，GNP本国居民，所以GNP-GDP=，GNP=
From GDP to Disposable Income。 GDP，Plus: Receipts of factor income from the rest of the world，Less: Payments of factor income to the rest of the world
Equals: GNP，Less: Depreciation
Equals: Net national product (NNP)，Less: Indirect taxes minus subsidies Equals: National income，Less: Corporate profits minus dividends
Less: Social insurance payments，Plus: Personal interest income received from govt & consumers，Plus: Transfer payments to persons Equals: Personal income，Less Personal taxes Equals: Disposable personal income
价格水平的衡量Measuring Prices。One of the economic goals is price stability. It means t that the aggregate price level，average prices，or a price index remains relatively stable.not never change 价格水平的衡量方法。The price level is a weighted average of the prices of all goods and services. A price index provides us with a reliable estimate of the price level. Economists use three basic price indices，the GDP deflator 、the consumer price index and Producer Price Index.
价格水平的3种测度方法：消费者物价指数(Consumer Price Index，CPI)，GDP缩(平减)减指数(GDP Deflator)，生产者物价指数(Producer Price Index，PPI)
消费者物价指数(CPI)描述的是在一段时期消费者消费的一篮子代表性商品和服务清单的价格按各项费用占总消费份额的权数的加权平均价格，也即生活费用。CPI为实际使用的一般物价水平指标。也即通胀指标。消费者物价指数测度消费者消费物品（含有进口品的消费）的平均价格。GDP缩减指数测度本国所产出的物品的平均价格，为理论上的一般物价水平。 消费者物价指数和GDP缩减指数大多数时期同时变动。我国价格水平的两个指标：居民消费价格指数，相当于CPI；商品零售价格指数，相当于PPI。按照CPI和GDP缩减指数所计算的通货膨胀率大致相同。
There are two measures of cost of living: The GDP deflator and the CPI.（倒过来分开说）
（引文，连贯引出）An accurate view of the economy requires adjusting nominal to real GDP by using the GDP deflator.
GDP平减指数的含义。The GDP Deflator is the ratio of nominal GDP to real GDP.The broadest measure of inflation is the GDP Deflator. Rather than relying on a market basket，it is based on the prices of all goods and services produced in the economy.GDP平减指数的作用。The GDP deflatoris often used to estimate overall inflation（the level of prices）as it includes the prices of all domestically produced goods。It’s one of the measures of cost of living。（连贯引到…） 消费者价格指数CPI的含义。one of themeasures of cost of living is the consumer price index (CPI)。The CPI is the current price of base-year basket of goods & services relative to the base-year price of base-year basket of goods & services. CPI is used to estimate changes in the price level. A CPI is made up of a basket of goods & services on which a group of households normally spends its income。原因In reality，there are so many prices that it would be very difficult to include all goods & services into consideration.To the consumers or the general public，the prices of consumer goods would affect the general consumption pattern. Thus，prices of consumer goods are taken as a measure on the general price level. 消费者价格指数和GDP平减指数的区别。
There are three key differences between the CPI and the GDP deflator: (1) The GDP deflator measures the prices(covers/ includes) of all goods and services produced，whereas the CPI measures the prices of only the goods and services bought by consumers. (2) The GDP deflator includes only those goods produced domestically. (3) The CPI uses a fixed basket (base-year quantities)，whereas the GDP deflator uses a changing basket (current quantities). The GDP deflator becomes a more reliable measure of inflation.The GDP deflator (differs from the CPI because it )covers all goods & services produced currently in a year. The CPI includes only some consumer prices。紧缩指数
生产者物价指数Producer Price Indexes(PPI):
1. There are three producer price indexes (PPI) which keep track of average prices received by producers.One includes crude materials, another intermediate goods, and the last covers finished goods.The PPI indexes do not include all producer prices but primarily those in mining, manufacturing, and agriculture.
2. PPI’s are watched as a clue to potential changes in consumer prices 。beacause Over long periods, PPI’s and CPI’s generally reflect the same inflation rate, but in the short run, the PPI’s
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usually increase first.
通胀的含义Meaning of Inflation。Inflation is defined as a continuous or persistent rise in the general price level. Whenever inflation exists in an economy，it must be a change in the overall level of prices of goods & services，not just any 1 or some goods or services only and the rise had to last for a certain noticeable period of time,, not a change in any specific price.. If the rise is a continuous drop instead，it is called deflation。通货紧缩Deflation。A situation in which the prices of most goods and services are falling over time so that inflation is negative is called deflation. 通胀（价格水平变化）的衡量、通胀率Measurement of Inflation & Price Level。To measure inflation (or deflation) over a given time period using either the CPI or the GDP deflator，simply
subtract(减去) the starting year index from the ending index，divide by the starting year index，and multiply by 100. Specifically，（the inflation rate） the percentage change in prices using CPI equals. (CPI later year-CPI earlier year)/ CPI earlier year×100%。
国民收入的影响因素（经济增长影响因素）Factors Affecting National Income。 1.生产要素Factors of Production。Normally the more efficient and richer the resources，the higher the level of national income or GDP will be. Land。Resources like coal，iron & timber(木材) are essential for heavy industries so that they must be available and accessible. In other words，the geographical location of these natural resources
affect the level of GDP.
Capital。Capital is greatly determined by investment.Investment in turn depends on other factors like profitability，political stability etc.
Labour & Entrepreneur。The quality or productivity of human resources is more important than quantity.
Manpower planning and education affect the productivity and production capacity of an economy. 2.技术Technology.This factor is more important for nations with little natural resources. The development in technology is affected by the level of invention and innovation on production. 3.政府Government.Government can help to provide a favourable business environment for investment.It provides laws and order，regulations that affect exchanges.
========================简单国民收入决定模型
at equilibrium planned investment = saving, but Saving is always = investment (planned + unplanned)（desired+Undesired）
简单凯恩斯模型、总支出模型The aggregate expenditure model(AE模型)。Sa(after tax saving)+ M + T=Ig + X + G at equilibrium。Aggregate expenditure (total spending)=
Equilibrium occurs where Y = AE, that is, where Aggregate output is equal to planned aggregate expenditure.
Equilibrium Condition: Y = C + I + G
The Leakages/Injections Approach to Equilibrium.At Equilibrium:S + T=I + G(At equilibrium:Y=AE,Y=C + S + T,AE=C + I + G)
Equilibrium does not require that G = T or that S = I. It is only necessary that the sum of S and T equals the sum of I and G. 奥肯定律Okun’s Law。（自己用一些连贯词句串起来）
Unemployment is the idling and wasting of the human resources。
measure the negative social economic consequences of unemployment。
provides the relationship between changes in real GDP and the corresponding changes in unemployment。
According to Okun's law, for every two percentage point that real GDP grows faster than the normal rate of increase in potential output (also called the trend rate of growth), the unemployment rate falls by one percentage point。
reflects the fluctuant relationship between the rate of unemployment and the rate of economic growth。
only an empirical analysis.based on the statistical materials ,up to now there is no correspoding theorem about the quantitative relationship between these two variables(a rigorous mathematical analysis)。【the observation that as the economy pulls out of a recession, output increases more than proportionately to increases in employment 】
奥肯定律===简洁（3-4句话，英汉复试都可用）(英语复试先记住最重要的一句话，防记不住其他的） 失业是劳动力资源的闲置或浪费。
为确切衡量由于失业引起的经济损失，美国经济学家奥肯(A．M．Okun)根据统计资料估算了由于降低失
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业率而带来的实际GDP的增加数额，即“奥肯定律”:失业增加1％，使GDP减少2％. 奥肯定律说明的是失业率变动与经济增长率变动之间的一种反方向变动的定量关系。
需要说明的是，该定律仅是一条经验规律，如何从理论上揭示失业率变动与经济增长率变动之间反方向变动的定量关系，目前尚无相关文献资料。
从奥肯定律我们可以得到一个重要结论：实际GDP必须保持与潜在GDP同样快的增长，以防止失业率上升。即GDP必须不断增长，才能保证失业率不变，如果想让失业率下降（如维持充分就业），实际GDP增长必须快于潜在GDP的增长。 GDP缺口和奥肯定律的关系。
============================消费理论Three Consumption Theory（消费函数consumption function）
消费（或储蓄）的影响因素。消费（或储蓄）的主要影响因素：收入。
消费(支出)的组成。Consumer spending consists of two components: Autonomous consumption is influenced by non-income factors, including consumer confidence(Maintaining Consumer
Confidence)；Induced consumption 。As household income increases, consumers purchase more goods and services. The amount of this induced consumption is suggested(表示？) by the marginal propensity to consume.Eventually consumer spending increases by a multiple of the income change.
消费的影响。An increase in income should not immediately increase consumption spending by very much, but with time it should have a greater and greater effect(通过乘数效应) 。 消费倾向(消费的影响的衡量/表示方法)。边际消费倾向Marginal Propensity to consume。MPC=change on consumption/ change in income，MPS=change in saving/change in income。 乘数效应的含义Multiplier Effect。【广义的含义包括分类、影响因素（所以原因放在影响因素后），写时分开但说时最好一起说】
Changes in investment (or in the consumption and saving schedules) will cause real GDP to change in the same direction by an amount greater than the initial change in investment (or consumption)，this is called the multiplier effect。乘数的含义Multiplier is the factor by which the initial change in spending is magnified（A change in a component of total spending leads to a larger change in GDP）。Multiplier=change in real GDP/initial change in spending，（Change in GDP=multiplier x initial change in spending）。（自己过渡一下【连贯引出下文】：乘数效应的大小可用乘数的大小来衡量。）
支出乘数Expenditure Multiplier。 The ratio of the change in aggregate output (or gross domestic product) to an autonomous change in an aggregate expenditure (consumption expenditures, investment expenditures, government purchases, or net exports). The expenditure multiplier is a key component of Keynesian economics and the study of macroeconomics, illustrating how a relatively small change in an expenditure like investment can trigger larger changes in aggregate output. The value of the expenditure multiplier depends on the marginal propensity to consume and other induced expenditures.
乘数的原因The multiplier is due to:Repetitive, continuous flows of expenditures and income，Change in income affects consumption and saving。The Multiplier Process。
凯恩斯的消费理论（绝对收入假说）的含义及假设The Keynes absolute income hypothesis assumes that current real consumer spending is primarily determined by current real disposable income. This consumption function based on Keynes’ absolute income hypothesis has three important properties:
The MPC is between 0 and 1 (not inclusive)，i.e. 0 < MPC < 1（严禁只有一句话） The APC falls as Yd rises(the APC declines as income rises)
The MPC is less than the APC (Average propensity to Consume) Because of the existence of some autonomous consumption.
绝对收入假说的缺陷。The absolute income hypothesis was unable to explain the relationship between consumption and income over the longer term as the economy grew along its trend path. 生命周期假说的含义、假设、作用The life-cycle hypothesis (model，theory)( of the consumption function) assumes that individuals want a reasonable constant level of consumption throughout their lifetime. The key assumption of it is that consumers prefer a smooth path of consumption over their lifetime(the household desires a constant level of consumption throughout its lifetime) rather than high levels of consumption in some periods and low levels in others。Specifically，they will dissave when income is relatively low，and save when income is relatively high. This will imply dissaving in early life and after retirement financed by saving in the middle
years.People must save in the middle years. this saving must be sufficient to pay back any money borrowed in the early period (plus interest)，and accumulate enough funds to spend in retirement. (另一角度，不同叙述顺序)The life-cycle hypothesis suggests that in the early life, a person is a net
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